How to obtain an EU passport: All possible ways in 2025

EU citizenship is a supplementary status automatically granted to nationals of European Union member states. It was introduced in 1992 by The Maastricht Treaty, also known as the Treaty on European Union, TEU, at the same time as the creation of the EU.

EU citizenship complements national citizenship and provides additional rights and benefits, such as voting and standing for elections in the European Parliament and local elections in any EU country of residence. Some rights and benefits come from national law and may vary by country, while others come from EU law and are the same across all EU countries.

To get EU citizenship, one must apply for citizenship in a specific EU country. This can be achieved through various pathways, including citizenship by birthright, naturalisation, descent, or marriage. Naturalisation after residence permit by investment allows individuals to obtain citizenship in some EU countries by contributing to their economies.

The process and requirements vary across member states but generally include criteria like continuous residence, legal status, and submission of a successful application.

To become an EU citizen, one must obtain a passport from one of the member states. It can be acquired through:

• birthright, when born in an EU country to parents who are nationals of that country;

• marriage to an EU citizen;

• descent, if a parent or grandparent was a citizen;

• investment, with the requirements varying by country.

Citizenship by descent is granted to descendants in the direct line. If a person’s parents, grandparents, and, in some cases, great-grandparents are or were citizens of an EU country, they can also acquire a passport of that state.

Citizenship by naturalisation allows third-country nationals who don’t have any ancestors in the country to obtain passports. To do so, the candidates need to prove that they have strong ties with the state.

Naturalisation is available to people who moved to an EU country to work or do business, are married to a country’s citizen, have received long-term medical treatment, or got resident permits as financially independent persons.

As a general rule, before applying for citizenship by naturalisation, foreign nationals first need to legally reside in the country for a set time — around 5—10 years, depending on the country.

Citizenship by naturalisation after investing. Investors who obtained their residency permits by investing in the country’s economy can also be naturalised. This EU citizenship path can take 1 to 10 years, depending on the country.

In Malta, for example, an investor can obtain citizenship by naturalisation for exceptional services by direct investment in 1 or 3 years.

Uncover the advantages of European citizenship and the fastest way to obtain an EU passport

Citizenship by investment is not directly available in EU countries. However, investors can initially obtain residence permits by investment. After meeting residency and other criteria, they may apply for citizenship through naturalisation — this path typically takes at least 5 years.

1. Malta citizenship by naturalisation for exceptional services by direct investment can be obtained in 1 or 3 years.

Applicants must purchase or rent property in Malta and obtain residence permits. After that, they pass an Eligibility Assessment and fulfil the investment conditions required for citizenship: make a non-refundable contribution to a government fund and donate to a non-governmental organisation.

After obtaining their permits, applicants must retain residency status for 1 or 3 years, depending on the contribution amount. Once that period has passed, investors can obtain citizenship by naturalisation for exceptional services.

Individual cost calculation for Maltese citizenship

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Several European countries offer residence by investment. After a few years, an investor may apply for citizenship. The time required to obtain citizenship varies by country.

2. Portugal offers residency for an investment of at least €250,000 to support the country’s arts and cultural heritage. The most popular option is purchasing investment fund units for €500,000.

Citizenship can be obtained five years after applying for a residence permit. During this period, the investor spends at least seven days per year in the country. The applicant must also prove proficiency in Portuguese at least to an A2 level and be without criminal records.

3. Greece requires a minimum investment of €250,000 in real estate for a residence permit, which is renewable every 5 years.

After 7 years of living in Greece, the investor can apply for citizenship. They must take an exam to confirm their knowledge of the Greek language, culture, history, geography, and governmental system.

4. Cyprus offers permanent residency to foreigners who invest at least €300,000. Purchasing residential or commercial real estate is among the options.

Obtaining Cyprus citizenship is possible after 8 years of living on the island. The applicant must confirm knowledge of the Greek language and culture of Cyprus.

5. Spain issues residence permits to foreigners who invest at least €500,000 in real estate.

Permanent residency can be obtained in 5 years if the individual does not leave Spain for more than 10 months during that period. 5 more years later, they can apply for citizenship.

However, only citizens of France, Portugal, Andorra, and several Latin American states will be able to keep their first nationality after obtaining a Spanish passport, as the country does not recognise dual citizenship in most cases.

6. Italy has four investment paths to obtain the Golden Visa, with the cheapest of them worth €250,000 as an investment in an innovative startup. Purchasing real estate is not among the options.

Investors can apply for citizenship after residing in Italy for 10 years.

7. Hungary relaunched the Golden Visa in July 2024.

The new Hungarian program grants 10-year residence permits for a minimum investment amount of €250,000 in fund units

After 3 years of residing in Hungary, the foreigner is eligible for permanent residency. To qualify for citizenship, the investor must live in the country for a total of 11 years.

The total cost of obtaining citizenship in Europe depends on the country, the citizenship pathway, and the individual circumstances.

While EU citizenship cannot be acquired directly by investment, one can first get a residence by investment and later apply for citizenship by naturalisation.

Minimum investments range from €250,000 to 690,000, depending on the specific residence program. In addition to the investment, there are other associated costs:

• €500—2000 for application fees;

• €280—1,500 for administrative fees;

• €300—1000 for health insurance;

• €100+ for processing fees;

• €100—6,000 for issuance of a residence card;

• €70—650 for registration fees;

• document notarisation and translation fees.

When adding family members to the application, the total cost increases with each dependent. Living and maintaining a residence in the country may also involve additional expenses.

Countries to obtain residency by investment and then become a naturalised citizen

Country

Malta

Investment

€690,000

Time to citizenship

1—3 years

Qualifying family members

Spouse or registered partner, сhildren under 29, parents and grandparents over 55

Country

Portugal

Investment

€250,000

Time to citizenship

5 years

Qualifying family members

Spouse, children under 26, parents

Country

Greece

Investment

€250,000

Time to citizenship

7 years

Qualifying family members

Spouse, children under 24, parents

Country

Cyprus

Investment

€300,000

Time to citizenship

8 years

Qualifying family members

Spouse, children under 25

Country

Spain

Investment

€500,000

Time to citizenship

10 years

Qualifying family members

Spouse, children, parents

Country

Italy

Investment

€250,000

Time to citizenship

10 years

Qualifying family members

Spouse, children, parents

Country

Hungary

Investment

€250,000

Time to citizenship

11 years

Qualifying family members

Spouse, children under 55, parents

Country

Investment

Time to citizenship

Qualifying family members

Malta

€690,000

1—3 years

Spouse or registered partner, сhildren under 29, parents and grandparents over 55

Portugal

€250,000

5 years

Spouse, children under 26, parents

Greece

€250,000

7 years

Spouse, children under 24, parents

Cyprus

€300,000

8 years

Spouse, children under 25

Spain

€500,000

10 years

Spouse, children, parents

Italy

€250,000

10 years

Spouse, children, parents

Hungary

€250,000

11 years

Spouse, children under 55, parents

All EU states provide citizenship to people born to families with at least one country’s national as a parent. If citizenship is not granted automatically, it can be obtained later.

Aside from that, most of the EU states also issue passports for grandchildren and great-grandchildren of the country’s nationals.

Naturalisation is the most common way for foreign nationals to obtain citizenship of an EU country. To be able to apply for naturalisation, one has to live in the country, have a residence permit, and prove one’s ties to the country.

Aside from that, the common requirements to get an EU passport are usually to pass an exam on the national language or provide a language proficiency certificate. Some countries, like Austria and Greece, also require the candidate for naturalisation to pass an exam on the state’s history, culture, and political system.

Financially independent individuals can obtain citizenship by naturalisation. They first acquire a residence permit and later qualify for a passport.

Many EU countries offer special residence permits to financially independent foreigners. These permits require proof of sufficient income or savings to support the applicant and their family without working in the host country. This pathway is popular among retirees, digital nomads, and those with passive income.

Requirements for financially independent people. Applicants must meet specific financial thresholds set by each country.

For example, to move to Portugal as a financially independent person, one has to prove an income of at least €870 monthly. Additional amounts apply for family members, such as 50% of the minimum wage for a spouse and 30% for each dependent child.

For Austria, the required monthly income is much higher: €2,436+ for a single applicant. This amount increases for each dependent: it is €3,843+ per month for a married couple, as well as €376 per month for each child.

Additional requirements. Along with proof of financial means, applicants usually need health insurance that covers their stay in the host country, proof of accommodation, such as rented or owned property, and a clean criminal record.

Pathway to citizenship. After obtaining a residence permit, applicants must meet the residency requirements, which usually involve spending a certain number of days in the country each year. Over time, they become eligible for citizenship by naturalisation, typically after 5—10 years of continuous legal residence.

Some countries also require passing language or integration tests.

In Portugal, citizenship is available after five years of residence, and applicants must demonstrate knowledge of the Portuguese language at an A2 level. In Austria, citizenship requires at least 10 years of residence, as well as proficiency in German and a clear understanding of Austrian history and culture.

Spouses and direct family members of EU citizens can apply for citizenship by naturalisation. As in other pathways, they first get a residence permit and later a passport. Typically, this path is faster than other types of naturalisation.

Citizenship by marriage. Foreign nationals who are married or live in a registered partnership with a citizen of Portugal will obtain their passport in 3 years instead of 5. In Spain, spouses of the country’s nationals can get naturalised after one year of residency, provided they spent it within the state.

Some countries put citizenship by marriage in a special category. For instance, when a person wants to obtain a passport of Malta after marrying a country’s national, they apply for citizenship by registration.

Citizenship by family reunification. EU citizens and residents can sponsor close relatives for residence permits under family reunification laws. Eligible relatives typically include spouses, minor children, dependent adult children, and, in some cases, parents. After meeting residency requirements, these family members may apply for citizenship.

For instance, family members of German citizens or permanent residents can reunite with their sponsor, provided they meet conditions such as basic language skills and financial stability. After living in Germany for 3 years, family members may apply for citizenship.

In Austria, family members of Austrian citizens or permanent residents can apply for residence permits to join their relatives. They can eventually qualify for naturalisation, typically after 6—10 years of residence.

In Greece, family members of Greek nationals or permanent residents can gain citizenship after 3—7 years of legal residency.

Requirements for family reunification. Applicants must demonstrate their relationship to the sponsor, provide proof of financial stability, and secure appropriate housing. Language proficiency and cultural integration may also be required before naturalisation.

EU company employees can also get citizenship by naturalisation. First, they get a residence permit, and later, a passport.

Types of residence permits for work. Being an employee of a company within the EU is another way to obtain residency. There are two work and residence permits available:

• a regular work permit for people with no special qualifications;

• a Blue Card — a work and residence permit for highly qualified professionals with higher education.

The difference between the permits is in the obtainment process and the minimum salary that is required to be mentioned in the contract. The Blue Card provides more benefits to its holder — for instance, they can leave the country for a maximum of 12 months. Meanwhile, residents with regular work permits can be absent for only 6 months.

Pathway to citizenship. Employees of countries based in EU states obtain citizenship under the country’s general naturalisation laws. For example, in Austria, it’s 10 years; in Malta — 5 years.

Entrepreneurs can obtain EU citizenship by naturalisation. The process begins with securing a residence permit and ultimately leads to obtaining a passport.

Foreign nationals can gain residency in EU countries by starting or investing in a business. This pathway is part of residency by investment programs designed to attract foreign investment and stimulate economic growth. Several countries also offer specialised visas for entrepreneurs.

The D2 visa to Portugal is designed for non-EU entrepreneurs and independent workers. Applicants must show a detailed business plan and demonstrate that their business will benefit the Portuguese economy. There are two main categories of the D2 Visa:

• Startup Visa — for entrepreneurs with innovative startups approved by IAPMEI and supported by an incubator;

• residence visa for entrepreneurs — for those starting or investing in a business in Portugal.

Applicants must provide proof of sufficient funds to invest. While there is no minimum required amount, €5,000 is often recommended as the starting share capital.

In Spain, entrepreneurs can obtain residency by investing in a business that creates jobs, contributes to innovation, or benefits the Spanish economy. Notably, there is no specified minimum investment amount for the Entrepreneur Visa; instead, the focus is on the business’s innovation and viability.

In Italy, foreign nationals can apply for a Start-Up Visa, provided their business proposal meets innovation criteria and is approved by the relevant authorities.

In France, entrepreneurs can apply for a Talent Passport permit, which is granted to individuals creating or managing innovative businesses in France.

Entrepreneurs follow the general naturalisation rules to obtain citizenship. This involves residing in the chosen EU country for typically 5—10 years and fulfilling specific conditions such as:

• living in the country for a minimum number of days per year;

• complying with tax obligations;

• demonstrating integration into society, including knowledge of the language and culture.

Applicants must carefully review the legal and financial requirements of each country. Many EU states require a clear business plan, proof of sufficient capital, and evidence that the business will have a positive economic impact.

The time it takes to obtain EU citizenship varies by country and depends on the specific pathway an individual chooses, such as naturalisation:

• 5—10 years — for citizenship by naturalisation;

• 1—5 years — for citizenship by marriage;

• 1+ years — for citizenship by naturalisation after investment.

Certain groups, such as refugees or stateless persons, may also qualify for citizenship faster in some countries. For example, in Greece stateless persons can apply for citizenship after 3 years of legal residence instead of 7 years, and in Spain stateless individuals are eligible for citizenship after 5 years of residence, compared to the standard 10 years.

There are no special programs for US citizens to obtain citizenship in an EU country. They can explore the same paths as every other non-EU citizen, including descent, naturalisation, and marriage.

The United States recognises dual citizenship, meaning that US nationals who want to obtain a passport from a second country do not have to choose between them.

The documents necessary to apply for citizenship in an EU country may differ depending on the path the applicant has taken to obtain it.

The most common documents required include the following:

• a valid passport or a national ID card;

• passport photos;

• a birth certificate;

• a marriage or divorce certificate;

• proof of a clean criminal record;

• proof of a clean medical record;

• proof of residence in the country for the period required for citizenship by naturalisation;

• birth and marriage certificates of ancestors who were EU citizens for citizenship by descent;

• proof of investment for citizenship by investment.

Residency duration. Applicants must legally reside in the country for a specified period, which varies by country and pathway. For naturalisation, this is typically 5—10 years.

Language proficiency. Many EU countries require applicants to demonstrate proficiency in the national language. The required level is often A2 or B1 on the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages, or CEFR.

Integration into society. Applicants may need to show they are socially integrated, often through participation in cultural activities, employment, or community involvement. Some countries also require passing a citizenship test that covers history, culture, and laws.

Good character. A clean criminal record is a standard requirement. Applicants must not have any serious convictions that could disqualify them.

Financial stability. Proof of financial independence or employment may be necessary to demonstrate the ability to support oneself without relying on public funds.

EU citizenship offers numerous advantages, including visa-free travel, access to world-class healthcare and education, and the freedom to live and work in any EU member state. Citizens can also enjoy tax benefits, cultural diversity, and some of the highest quality-of-life rankings globally.

1. High quality of life. Eight of the top 10 countries with the highest quality of life are EU states. European countries boast high levels of security, good healthcare and education systems, and low pollution indicators.

A citizen of any EU state can change their residency to any other EU country with almost no paperwork. This makes it possible for investors to reside in countries with the highest quality of life.

For instance, if one obtains citizenship in Portugal, the 20th in the quality of life index, they can move with no restrictions to Switzerland, the 1st country by quality of life.

2. Visa-free travels. EU countries provide some of the strongest passports in the world. Depending on the country, its citizens can travel visa-free to 170—180+ countries. Citizens of the EU states can travel freely to other countries of the Union.

In addition, they can visit the USA with an eTA, a type of e-visa that takes around 20 minutes and $21 to obtain.

3. Access to social services. Citizens of an EU country can take advantage of all the social benefits it has to offer. This includes high-quality healthcare, free education, high pensions, public services, etc.

Citizens of the EU countries can take advantage of the European Health Insurance Card, which allows medical treatment in any other state within the Union.

4. High-quality education. Citizens of EU countries can study at any university within the Union. This includes some of the world’s best universities:

• ETH Zurich, Switzerland — the 7th university in the QS World University Ranking for 2025;

• Université PSL, France — the 24th best university;

• EPFL, Switzerland — the 26th best university.

5. Tax optimisation opportunities. Tax systems of EU countries can be beneficial to some investors. For example, Malta’s tax system is favourable to businesses — companies there can get a tax refund of up to 100%. In Italy, new tax residents can pay a flat global income tax of €200,000 per year for 15 years, regardless of their income amount.

6. Work and business opportunities. While some residency statuses do not allow their holder to work within the country, citizens are free to get employed with any company they want or start their own business. As an EU citizen, the paperwork for them will be much easier in comparison to such for foreign nationals.

7. Cultural and linguistic diversity. EU citizens can easily participate in cultural programmes and festivals across Europe, enhancing their understanding and appreciation of its varied heritage. There are 24 “official and working” languages across the EU to learn and use.