Dual citizens: who they are and what rights and responsibilities they have

Dual citizens are persons who hold more than one citizenship. They can be divided into two groups:

1. Those with the legitimate status of dual nationals in both countries. It is possible when their countries of citizenship have signed a treaty on the settlement of issues of dual nationality. For example, this happens to a person who holds an Argentinian and Spanish passport.

2. Those with formal status. It is possible when holding dual citizenship is not regulated by either federal law or an international treaty. For example, this happens to a person with American and Maltese passports.

The rights and responsibilities of dual citizens depend on which group described above they belong to.

How to become a dual citizen by investment

Dual citizenship. If countries have signed a treaty on dual citizenship, they recognise the rights and responsibilities of a dual citizen in relation to each other.

Suppose a man with dual citizenship of Spain and Argentina lived in Spain; therefore, he served in the Spanish army and paid taxes to the budget of this country. Having moved to Argentina, he begins to pay taxes there, but his military service no longer needs to be served.

Second citizenship can be obtained in a country that has not signed an agreement on dual citizenship with the country of your first citizenship. For example, it usually is the case when citizenship is obtained by investment.

With second citizenship, both countries of citizenship consider such persons only their citizens, and the fulfilment of civic responsibilities in one country does not count in the other.

Advantages of being dual national depend on the countries this person holds citizenship.

Dual citizenship allows living, working, studying, and receiving allowances and pensions in the selected country. Second citizenship can provide more benefits than dual one.

1. Visa-free travel. Second citizenship makes it possible not to waste time obtaining visas and travelling even when the borders are closed for tourists.

For example, Maltese passport holders, as well as citizens of some Caribbean countries, are allowed to visit the UK and Schengen Area without visas. Maltese citizens also travel visa-free to the USA, while Caribbean citizens obtain long-term visas to visit this country.

2. Health care. Citizenship of an EU country permits one to apply to public medical institutions of the union and use medical services free of charge or at reduced prices.

3. Education. Best schools and universities are situated in the US, UK and EU. Second citizenship may help children get a good education and job, with their parents having no obstacles to visiting them.

4. Moving to another country. Dual citizens can choose to live in a country with a warmer climate, better ecology, more attractive fiscal system and broader opportunities for doing business.

In Portugal, investors can obtain residence permits and, after five years, apply for citizenship. The climate of this country is characterised by about 300 sunny days a year

5. Doing business. Second citizenship allows one to open a company abroad and promptly travel to business meetings.

For example, a Grenada passport gives visa-free access to 140+ countries, including Singapore, the UK, and China. Citizens of Grenada can also obtain a B‑1/B‑2 Visitor Visa to the United States for 10 years, as well as an E‑2 Business Visa.

6. Employment opportunities. Dual citizens often have the right to work without the need for a work permit in their countries of citizenship, broadening job opportunities across multiple markets.

7. Citizenship for the whole family. Citizenship by investment programs allow to include family members in the application: a spouse, children, parents, grandparents, and siblings. Relatives will become dual citizens at the same time as the investor.

Nkosi, 46 years old

A businessman from Egypt

Malta citizenship to live, study, and work in the EU

Before obtaining Maltese passports, the investor and his family held a residence permit in Germany. Though, this status did not match their needs.

Maltese passports allow our clients to:

• live and study in any country of the EU;

• apply for jobs in the EU on an equal basis with EU citizens;

• retain their first citizenship.

Learn a case

8. Tax optimisation. Second citizenship may provide opportunities for more favourable tax regimes, depending on the country. For instance, Caribbean nations like Antigua and Barbuda or St Kitts and Nevis do not tax personal income, capital gains, or inheritances, which can be highly beneficial for wealth management and estate planning.

9. Expanded property ownership rights. In many countries, property ownership is restricted to citizens. Holding a second citizenship allows individuals to purchase property in locations otherwise restricted to foreigners, offering investment opportunities and personal residence options unavailable otherwise.

10. Safety and stability. Holding a second passport from a stable, peaceful country like Malta or Portugal can provide a safety net against political or economic turmoil in one’s home country.

11. Cultural heritage and identity. For many, holding citizenship in a country connected to their ancestry can be deeply fulfilling. It allows them to strengthen ties with their cultural heritage, participate in traditions, and maintain linguistic and historical connections.

The drawbacks of being dual citizens are connected with responsibilities towards the countries of their citizenship. Besides, many countries impose restrictions on dual citizens.

No career in politics. This applies to both the country of origin and the country of second and subsequent citizenship. A person with dual or second citizenship is not entitled to work in government bodies or have access to state secrets. The ban on work in state bodies is imposed due to a threat to the state’s internal security.

Military service. Those who have obtained second citizenship become liable for military service in both countries of their citizenship. Service in one country’s army does not eliminate the obligation to serve under conscription in the other.

The exception is dual nationals who obtained a second passport by investment: neither the investor nor his children are subject to conscription in the country of second citizenship.

For persons with dual citizenship, service in the army of one state is recognised in the other one. They do not have to serve twice.

Penalty for non-fulfilment of civic obligations. A fine is imposed for the failure to vote in Austria, Australia, Belgium, Bulgaria, Brazil, Greece, Egypt, Luxembourg, Turkey, Pakistan, and other countries. In some countries, ignoring the duties of voters provides for a jail sentence.

Many countries allow their citizens to hold multiple citizenships. However, they consider dual nationals only as their own citizens and do not recognise their rights and obligations in relation to other states.

Obtaining a US passport is accompanied by an oath, which at first glance obliges you to give up your first passport. Here is a quote from the Oath of Allegiance: "I hereby declare, on oath, that I absolutely and entirely renounce and abjure all allegiance and fidelity to any foreign prince, potentate, state, or sovereignty, of whom or which I have heretofore been a subject or citizen."

However, in the case of acquiring US citizenship, there is no real need to renounce the citizenship of another country. The United States considers dual nationals solely as citizens of their country.

Some countries do not allow multiple citizenship. If a citizen of one of these states acquires second citizenship, he loses the right to the first. The first citizenship does not terminate automatically: you must apply for renunciation of citizenship.

In Spain, it is banned to hold second citizenship. To become a citizen of the country, you need to give up the passports of other states. The exception is citizens of France, Andorra, Portugal, the Philippines, Equatorial Guinea and some Latin American countries, who can obtain dual citizenship with Spain.

There are countries where it is almost impossible to get a second passport: due to the small territory of the country, the high population density, or the culture closed to foreigners.

Vatican City is the smallest country on earth. About 800 people live there, 450 of whom are citizens of the state. The country follows one of the most challenging immigration policies in the world. Only cardinals residing in Vatican City or Rome, diplomats representing the Holy See, or employees of the Catholic church can obtain Vatican City citizenship.

Liechtenstein is a mountainous country between Austria and Switzerland with a population of about 40 thousand people. The country’s passport is issued after 30 years of continuous residence or, in case of marriage registration to its citizen, after 5 years.

There are no immigration programs in Liechtenstein. Each case of applying for a passport is considered individually. Factors of importance that influence the decision are the country of origin, financial situation, real estate ownership in Liechtenstein and meritorious service to the state.

The Nationality Law of the People’s Republic of China allows foreigners to become citizens of the country only if their relatives are Chinese citizens. The state is overpopulated, so there are no other real ways to get a passport. Naturalisation is possible, but the law does not mention the time necessary to live in China.

In the legislation of some countries, there are differences between foreigners who want to obtain citizenship of this country and their own citizens who get a passport of another state.

For example, if a foreigner wants to become an Egyptian citizen, the law does not require the renunciation of the other citizenship. But if an Egyptian decides to become a citizen of a foreign state, his Egyptian passport will be renounced.

To become a citizen of Bhutan, a foreigner needs to live in the country for 20 years, know the history and culture, as well as read and write Dzongkha, the official language of the kingdom

It is possible to obtain dual or second citizenship on the following grounds:

1. You were born abroad or to parents who hold citizenship of different countries.

2. You have married a citizen of another country.

3. You have been naturalised after long-term residence in the territory of a foreign state.

4. You have made investments in the country’s economy.

Citizenship by birth. There are two main methods for determining the citizenship of a child born in a foreign country:

1. "Jus sanguinis", or by blood. A child’s citizenship depends on their parents' one. It does not matter in which country the child was born.

2. "Jus soli", or by soil. The child acquires citizenship of the country they were born in. It does not matter which country’s citizenship their parents hold.

Method "jus soli" can be applied unconditionally, as in the United States, or with the qualifications on parents' citizenship, as in Germany.

If a child is born in the US and both of his parents are, for example, citizens of Turkey, then this child obtains two citizenships: Turkish and American. If a child is born in Germany, they acquire German citizenship if only at least one of his parents is German. If both parents are foreigners, the child gets the citizenship of the parent’s country of origin.

In many European countries they apply the method "jus sanguinis". Children born to foreigners in the UK, Greece, Portugal, Ireland and Spain receive only the citizenship of their parents, regardless of the country of birth.

In which countries children can acquire citizenship by birth

Marriage. Marriage should not be fictitious. In many countries, they tighten legislation and, within several years, check whether the spouses are really in a close relationship.

A foreigner will not be able to apply for citizenship immediately after the wedding: the legislation of many countries assumes that the couple should live together for several years.

For example, a spouse of an Italian may apply for citizenship after being married for at least two or three years, depending on the couple’s place of residence. The term is halved if a child is born in the family.

Naturalisation. The rules for acquiring citizenship by naturalisation depend on the country’s legislation.

The naturalisation procedure includes several stages:

1. A foreigner legally enters the country. For this purpose, they get, for example, a work or study visa or a visa for financially independent persons.

2. After legal entry, a foreigner can apply for a residence permit.

3. A few years later, the foreigner gets the right to apply for permanent residence or immediately for citizenship.

Citizenship by investment allows one to become a dual national quickly — starting from one month. Applicants are usually offered several investment options. Family members can be included in the application.

Citizenship programs allow wealthy people to get a passport by investing in the country’s economy. An equally reliable but longer option is to participate in temporary or permanent residence programs to obtain a second passport in the future.

Citizenship by investment. Citizenship by investment programs are approved by the government of the country. Depending on the program’s conditions, a foreigner can invest in real estate, business, and other assets.

Countries investors can obtain citizenship in

Country

Investment amount

Time to citizenship

Vanuatu

$130,000+

1—4 months

Dominica

$200,000+

6+ months

Antigua and Barbuda

$230,000+

6+ months

Grenada

$235,000+

8+ months

Saint Lucia

$240,000+

6+ months

St Kitts and Nevis

$250,000+

6+months

Egypt

$250,000+

10+ months

Turkey

$400,000+

8+ months

Malta

€690,000+

1 to 3 years

Citizenship by investment programs offer a quick route to obtaining a second passport and a significant opportunity for return on investment.

For example, Caribbean countries offer to purchase real estate in government-approved projects, which usually are luxury hotels. Investors earn an average of 3—5% of annual yields and can sell the property to fully recover the invested money in 3—7 years.

Citizenship programs are also structured with family inclusivity in mind. Investors can include dependents, such as spouses and children, in the initial application. Some programs allow the addition of parents or siblings under specific conditions.

For example, Vanuatu citizenship is available to the investor’s spouse, children under 25, and parents over 50. Adult children and parents must financially depend on the investor.

However, adding family members may increase the initial investment or associated fees. Therefore, total citizenship expenses are calculated individually, depending on the family composition and the chosen investment option.

Individual cost calculation for Vanuatu citizenship

Get the cost calculation

Temporary or permanent residence by investment. The procedure for obtaining citizenship for participants in the residence programs takes more time than for investors who acquire a second passport.

Investors with residence permits follow naturalisation paths, which usually require living in the country for several years and proving knowledge of the official language and history. For example, this is the case for Greece, where an investor must live for 7 years permanently as a resident and pass exams to qualify for the country’s passport.

Some countries offer simplified naturalisation terms for investors. In Portugal, an investor must spend just 7 days a year to maintain residency, and the term of holding such a residence permit counts for citizenship. Moreover, the countdown to citizenship starts at the application for the first residence permit.

Countries to get residency by investment and qualify for citizenship

Country

Investment

Time to get residency

Time to citizenship

Portugal

€250,000+

12+ months

5 years

Greece

€250,000+

4+ months

7 years

Cyprus

€300,000+

9+ months

8 years

Italy

€250,000+

4+ months

10 years

Spain

€500,000+

5+ months

10 years

Hungary

€250,000+

5+ months

11 years

Residence by investment programs allow investors to include family members, such as spouses and children, in the application. Some countries, like Portugal and Greece, also permit adding parents. This ensures that the whole family benefits from residency and may qualify for second citizenship in a few years.

An EU residence permit itself offers visa-free travel within the Schengen Area, making personal and business trips easier. It also grants access to high-quality healthcare and education. Family members may also be allowed to work or study in the country without additional permits.

Stateless persons are people who do not hold any citizenship. They can be born in a family of stateless persons or lose citizenship during life.

One can become a stateless person if:

1. They are born into a family where both parents are stateless. However, if they are born in the country where the principle "de soli" is applied, they acquire citizenship.

2. They renounce their citizenship. For example, this may happen when a person is going to get citizenship of another country. Until they obtain proof of identity in the new country, they are considered stateless.

3. They are sentenced to lose citizenship for committing crimes, from the harmful effects of which the state wants to protect its citizens.

4. They have their passport annulled because they obtained it illegally.

5. The country of their citizenship de jure and de facto ceases to exist.

6. There arises a conflict of nationality laws. For example, a woman loses citizenship in some countries if she marries a foreigner. If her husband’s country does not grant her citizenship immediately, she becomes stateless.

1. There is a legal distinction between dual and second citizenship, defining the rights and obligation.

2. Dual citizenship means the countries have a bilateral agreement on it, recognise and intercount the dual national’s rights and civic duties. Second citizenship implies the countries have no such agreement, so each state treats a person as their sole subject.

3. There are multiple pathways to obtaining dual or second citizenship, including birth, marriage, long-term residence, or investment, each with specific conditions and processes.

4. Dual or second citizenship offers numerous benefits, such as enhanced travel freedom, better access to education and healthcare, and increased business opportunities across multiple countries.

5. Holding dual or second citizenship also comes with challenges, including potential obligations like military service and limitations on careers in government or politics due to security concerns.

6. Citizenship by investment provides a quicker route to dual citizenship, where a second passport can be obtained in months instead of years, and mostly remotely.