How to get European citizenship by investment: complete guide

EU citizenship is a legal status granted automatically to anyone holding the nationality of an EU member state.

Citizenship allows a person to live, work, and study anywhere in the European Union, access healthcare in other EU countries on the same terms as locals, and vote in local and European Parliament elections.

Paths to citizenship. There are four primary routes to an EU passport: by repatriation, descent, marriage to an EU national, or naturalisation.

With marriage and naturalisation, foreigners must first get a residence permit and are eligible for citizenship several years later. Residence permits can be obtained by employment, studying, family reunification, or investment.

Purchasing an EU passport is impossible; any claim to the contrary is almost certainly a scam.

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European Union countries. As of 2025, the Union comprises 27 countries. These states work together under shared policies on trade, travel, and legislation. For example, the EU maintains a single market, allowing free movement of goods, capital, services, and people.

Most member states also use the euro as their official currency, though some, like Poland and Hungary, retain their national currencies.

List of EU member states

Austria

Belgium

Bulgaria

Croatia

Cyprus

Czechia

Denmark

Estonia

Finland

France

Germany

Greece

Hungary

Ireland

Italy

Latvia

Lithuania

Luxembourg

Malta

Netherlands

Poland

Portugal

Romania

Slovakia

Slovenia

Spain

Sweden

Difference between the EU and the Schengen Area. Although the European Union and the Schengen Area are closely connected, they serve different purposes.

The EU is a political and economic union whose citizenship grants legal rights across member states. The Schengen Area is a collection of countries that have abolished internal border checks to allow passport-free travel.

Most EU members participate in the Schengen Area, but Ireland and Cyprus do not, while Norway, Switzerland, Iceland, and Liechtenstein are in the Schengen Area without being EU members.

In short, EU membership defines your citizenship and associated rights, whereas Schengen agreement participation determines where and how you can cross borders without routine passport controls.

1. Residence in any EU country. As of 2025, the EU comprises 27 member states. Citizens of any one of these countries may live in the other 26 without obtaining additional residence permits. Their stay is indefinite, although they need to register with the local police for stays over 90 days; this process usually takes a few days.

2. Access to the EU labour market. EU citizenship entitles you to work in any of the 27 member states without a work permit. This simplifies finding employment, changing jobs, or pursuing cross-border career opportunities with the same rights and protections as local workers.

3. Visa-free travel within the EU and Schengen Area. EU citizens do not require visas to visit other EU or Schengen countries. Upon arrival they simply present a national ID card.

When flying, EU-citizens follow the specially dedicated lanes at passport control, which are typically much faster than those for non-EU travellers.

4. Visa-free travel to over 170 countries. EU passports rank among the world’s strongest. Spain sits second globally with visa-free access to 176 destinations. Cyprus, the EU passport with the least extensive visa-free access, offers entry to 170 countries.

The visa-free destinations include the United Kingdom, Canada, Japan, Singapore, the EEA states such as Switzerland, Norway, and Iceland, and, in most cases, the United States.

5. Purchase of real estate. EU citizens may buy property in any member state without the restrictions often imposed on non-EU nationals. In many countries they also enjoy easier access to local mortgages with better terms, lower interest rates and streamlined approval processes.

6. Access to social security. Wherever you live or work in the EU, you have the right to social protection including unemployment benefits, pensions and family allowances, ensuring a reliable financial safety net.

7. Education in prestigious universities. The EU hosts over 500 universities, including top institutions, such as Université PSL and Institut Polytechnique de Paris in France, the Technical University of Munich in Germany, and TU Delft and the University of Amsterdam in the Netherlands.

Tuition fees are generally lower for EU citizens and they can participate in Erasmus, a program offering study and internship exchanges with financial support for travel, accommodation, and living costs.

Degrees from any EU university are recognised across the European Union as well as in the United States, the United Kingdom, and beyond.

8. High-quality healthcare. EU member states provide excellent medical services. According to CEOWorld Magazine’s Health Care Index 2024, which ranks systems by quality, cost, and access, Sweden, Ireland, the Netherlands, and Germany place among the world’s top 10.

EU citizens carry a European Health Insurance Card that grants free or reduced-cost care in any EU country.

9. High quality of life and safety. The EU is celebrated for political stability, robust legal frameworks, and high living standards.

The 2024 Global Peace Index ranks Austria, Ireland, Portugal, Denmark, and Slovenia among the world’s top 10 safest nations, while the Numbeo Quality of Life Index 2025 places Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Denmark, Finland, and Sweden among countries with the highest overall quality of life.

Uncover the advantages of European citizenship and the fastest way to obtain an EU passport

There are four main ways to become a citizen of the European Union:

• repatriation;

• descent;

• marriage;

• naturalisation.

Citizenship by descent. Foreigners can obtain citizenship by descent in an EU country if one or both of their parents, or in some cases their grandparents, are citizens of that country.

To qualify, applicants must prove their family link by presenting official documents such as a birth certificate or an extract from the birth register. Continuous residency is generally not required.

Citizenship by repatriation. Repatriation generally means returning to one’s ancestral homeland, often through a process that allows you to regain or claim citizenship. The term is commonly applied to ethnic or historical groups who were displaced or who maintain ancestral ties to that country.

Some repatriation programs impose restrictions based on participants' date of birth or the period during which their relatives lived in the country. For example, in Latvia, Estonia, and Lithuania, citizenship can be obtained only if relatives lived there during the countries' periods of independence. If relatives lived in these countries during the Soviet era, it will not work to obtain a passport upon repatriation.

Applicants seeking citizenship by repatriation must submit documentary proof of their heritage, for example birth certificates, former passports or identity documents, or church or community records.

Repatriation is similar to descent but not the same. While both relate to ancestry, repatriation focuses on restoring ties disrupted by history, often with additional cultural or language requirements. It usually targets communities affected by historical events like war or political persecution. Descent is a universal right based purely on lineage.

Citizenship by marriage is available to individuals wed to EU citizens, including same-sex spouses and partners in registered partnerships.

Spouses do not become citizens immediately; they must first secure a residence permit and, after several years of marriage and cohabitation with their EU partner, submit an application for citizenship.

Overall, the route via marriage is typically faster than naturalisation. In Germany, for example, a third-country national must generally reside in the country for at least 5 years before applying for citizenship by naturalisation, whereas spouses of German citizens become eligible after 3 years.

Citizenship by naturalisation assumes that a person first receives a residence permit, then a permanent residency, and only then a passport. The process typically takes 5 to 10 years, with 7 being the region average. Obtaining citizenship by naturalisation is relatively difficult. First, a residence permit is issued, but it is not easily granted, as you need a valid reason to move. Acceptable reasons include: an invitation from an employer, university studies, or reunification with a family member.

After several years of permanent residence, you can apply for a permanent residence permit, and later, citizenship.

Residence permits by investment offer a streamlined route toward citizenship by naturalisation. Investors do not need family ties in an EU country or local employment; instead, they secure residency by making a financial contribution to the economy.

Depending on the country, the required investment ranges from €182,000 to 1,250,000. This option is currently available in, for instance, Malta, Portugal, and Greece.

Malta offers the fastest route to citizenship by naturalisation for investors. Foreigners first get a residence permit and, after 1 or 3 years, can apply for a Maltese citizenship.

Investment requirements. The minimum investment is €690,000 and consists of three mandatory elements:

1. Contribution to the National Development and Social Fund, NDSF — €600,000 for the 3-year residency route, or €750,000 for the 1-year residency route.

2. Real estate investment — leasing residential property for €16,000 per annum, or purchasing property worth €700,000 or more.

3. Charitable donation — €10,000 to a Maltese NGO.

Albert Ioffe,

Legal and Compliance Officer, certified CAMS specialist

If the investor chooses to rent real estate, the required property value and period of lease agreement varies depending on the type of status the investor is applying for.

When applying for a residence permit, there is no fixed minimum rental amount, but a recommended annual rent of €12,000 applies. The lease agreement must be concluded for 12 months in the case of the 1-year route to citizenship, and for 36 months for the 3-year route.

A minimum annual rent of €16,000 is required for citizenship applications. The lease agreement must be concluded for a minimum of 5 years.

Eligibility criteria. Main applicants must meet the following requirements:

• be over 18;

• have no criminal convictions, prosecutions, or pending charges;

• not be subject to any international sanctions;

• have no prior visa refusals from countries with visa-free access to Malta;

• prove legitimate sources of income.

Investors can include family members in the application:

• spouses or partners — legally married or in a registered partnership;

• children under 29 — unmarried and financially dependent on the investor;

• parents and grandparents — aged 55 or older and financially dependent on the investor.

A residence permit by investment, also known as a Golden Visa, is one of the simplest paths to citizenship, particularly for foreigners who do not have ancestors in an EU country. Investment allows individuals to become residents with minimal effort and stress, especially when working with a certified agent.

The main requirement is to make a contribution to the host country’s economy. The investment amounts vary by country. For example, in Portugal, Greece, and Hungary, the minimum investment is €250,000.

The process of obtaining a residence permit is straightforward and typically includes the following steps:

1. Collection of required documents.

2. Fulfilment of investment obligations.

3. Due Diligence by the relevant authorities.

4. In-person biometric submission.

5. Issuance of residence permits.

According to Immigrant Invest’s experience, residency is usually granted within 4 to 12 months.

Investors may later acquire citizenship by ordinary naturalisation, which involves residing in the country for a legally defined period and passing citizenship and language tests.

Cost and timing of obtaining EU citizenship after a Golden Visa

Country

Portugal

Investment

€250,000+

Golden Visa acquisition period

12+ months

Time to citizenship

5 years

Residing for citizenship

7 days a year

Country

Greece

Investment

€250,000+

Golden Visa acquisition period

4+ months

Time to citizenship

7 years

Residing for citizenship

183+ days a year

Country

Cyprus

Investment

€300,000+

Golden Visa acquisition period

9+ months

Time to citizenship

8 years

Residing for citizenship

183+ days a year

Country

Italy

Investment

€250,000+

Golden Visa acquisition period

4+ months

Time to citizenship

10 years

Residing for citizenship

183+ days a year

Country

Hungary

Investment

€250,000+

Golden Visa acquisition period

5+ months

Time to citizenship

11 years

Residing for citizenship

320+ days per year

Country

Investment

Golden Visa acquisition period

Time to citizenship

Residing for citizenship

Portugal

€250,000+

12+ months

5 years

7 days a year

Greece

€250,000+

4+ months

7 years

183+ days a year

Cyprus

€300,000+

9+ months

8 years

183+ days a year

Italy

€250,000+

4+ months

10 years

183+ days a year

Hungary

€250,000+

5+ months

11 years

320+ days per year

Visa-free travel. An EU passport grants its holder access to one of the world’s most powerful travel documents. Depending on the member state, EU citizens can visit around 170 countries without obtaining a visa in advance. Border crossings at international checkpoints are typically smooth, requiring only the presentation of a valid passport.

A long-term residence permit in the EU allows visa-free travel within the Schengen Area for up to 90 days within any 180-day period. No separate Schengen visa is required for short stays in other Schengen countries. However, this right is limited to Europe. Once outside the EU’s visa-free zone, holders are treated as third-country nationals.

Freedom of residence. EU citizens enjoy the unrestricted right to live, work, study, or retire in any member state. They must only meet basic conditions, such as possessing health insurance and sufficient financial resources to support themselves.

Long-term residents, however, initially hold these rights only in the issuing country. To relocate to another Member State, they must obtain a residence permit.

Economic and social rights. In terms of employment, social welfare, and education, EU citizens benefit from full equality with nationals in all member states. They can apply for any job, receive social security benefits, and access student grants under the same conditions as local citizens.

Long-term residents enjoy equivalent rights only within their host country. Moving to another Member State may involve labour-market access restrictions, waiting periods for social benefits, or limited access to educational support.

Political and consular rights. EU citizens may vote and stand as candidates in municipal and European Parliament elections in whichever member state they reside. They are also entitled to consular protection from any other EU country’s embassy when their own nation lacks diplomatic representation abroad.

In contrast, long-term residents have no voting rights at the local or EU level and are not eligible for consular protection under the same framework.

Portugal has one of the most accessible naturalisation systems in the EU, requiring only 5 years of residence. However, the countdown starts from the application for the first residence permit. Applicants must show basic Portuguese language skills at an A2 level. Holders of Golden Visas are eligible without permanent residence, staying in Portugal just 7 days per year is enough.

Portugal also historically offered citizenship to Sephardic Jews with ancestry linked to Portuguese communities expelled in the 15th century, often without requiring residence.

Malta provides the fastest path to EU citizenship through investment-based naturalisation for exceptional services. By making approved investments in Malta’s economy, applicants can receive a passport in as little as 1 year. Knowing Maltese or English is not required.

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Spain offers one of the fastest routes to citizenship by marriage. Foreign spouses may apply after just 1 year of marriage, provided they have also lived in Spain for at least 1 year since the wedding. Spanish language skills at A2 level, although this requirement is waived for nationals of Spanish-speaking countries.

Spain also simplifies naturalisation for citizens of Latin American countries, Andorra, and the Philippines. They can apply for citizenship after just 2 years of residency, compared to the standard 10 years for most other foreigners.

Italy provides a straightforward path to citizenship for spouses of Italian nationals. They may apply after 2 years of legal residence in Italy, or 3 years if living abroad. In both cases, proof of Italian language proficiency is required.

Germany grants automatic citizenship to recognised ethnic German resettlers from Eastern Europe or the former USSR. Applicants must prove German ancestry, demonstrate basic language ability before arrival, and show a connection to German culture.

In addition, Germany offers restoration of citizenship to descendants of those who were stripped of German nationality under Nazi rule between 1933 and 1945. This includes Jews, Roma, political exiles, and their descendants. No language or integration tests are required.

France allows simplified naturalisation for individuals who meet certain integration criteria, waiving the usual 5-year residency rule. You may qualify if:

• French is your mother tongue and you are from a French-speaking country;

• you studied for at least 5 years in a French-language institution in a francophone country;

• you graduated from a French university after completing 2 years of higher education.

Sweden offers citizenship to spouses or partners of Swedish nationals after 3 years of residence, provided the couple has lived together for at least 2 years.

For most applicants, citizenship by naturalisation is possible after 5 years of residence, making Sweden one of the fastest routes to EU citizenship with minimal bureaucracy and broad acceptance of dual citizenship.

Romania offers citizenship by restoration to descendants of former Romanian citizens, especially from Moldova and Ukraine. This process often requires no residence in the country and can be completed entirely from abroad. You do not need to speak Romanian

Lithuania allows citizenship by repatriation for descendants of citizens who fled before 1990 due to Soviet occupation or political persecution. This route does not require residency and allows dual citizenship in qualifying cases. By contrast, naturalised citizens must renounce their original nationality. Knowing Lithuanian is also not required.

Poland provides a repatriation path to citizenship for ethnic Poles, particularly families deported to Central Asia during Soviet rule. Applicants must relocate to Poland, but the government offers housing and integration support.

For others, Poland offers one of the fastest ordinary naturalisation routes in the EU: just 3 years of legal residence, a B1-level Polish language test, and proof of stable income are required.

Each EU country has its own legislation regarding dual citizenship, but many allow it. For example, holding more than one passport is permitted in Malta, Portugal, Hungary, and Greece.

Foreigners may obtain dual citizenship only if their country of origin also allows it. For instance, US and UK nationals are permitted to hold multiple passports, while Chinese nationals are not.

Some countries, such as Spain and Austria, prohibit dual citizenship. Foreigners must renounce their previous nationalities upon acquiring Spanish or Austrian citizenship.

Similarly, the Netherlands generally does not allow dual citizenship, with limited exceptions. For example, individuals married to Dutch nationals can keep their other nationality.

Tax residency. In general, a person becomes a tax resident of an EU country if they meet at least one of the following criteria by spending:

• more than 183 days in a calendar year in the given Member State;

• fewer than 183 days but have the bulk of their personal, social or economic ties in the country, such as family, property or principal source of income.

Once considered a tax resident, an individual must report and pay tax on their worldwide income to that Member State. Non-residents are typically taxed only on income earned within the country, such as employment income or rental income from local property.

Tax rates. Most EU countries use a progressive personal income tax structure. For example, Germany applies rates ranging from 0 to 45%. A few countries, mainly in Central and Eastern Europe, levy flat personal income tax rates.

Generally, Western and Northern Europe have higher tax rates. Finland has the highest rate at 57.65%, followed by Denmark at 55.9%, and Austria, which applies a top rate of 55%.

On average, Central and Eastern Europe have lower taxes. Bulgaria and Romania levy flat rates of 10%, while Hungary applies a flat rate of 15%.

Most EU countries apply a flat corporate tax rate. Malta has the highest corporate tax rate in the EU at 35%, while Hungary has the lowest at 9%.

Double taxation treaties. EU countries have signed double taxation treaties with many other countries worldwide. These agreements help dual citizens avoid being taxed twice on the same income.

1. Portugal, Greece, Hungary, Italy, and Cyprus are among countries offering residency by investment.

2. To obtain citizenship by naturalisation after receiving a residence permit, one needs to live in the country for 5 to 10 years.

3. An EU passport can be obtained by descent, repatriation, marriage, and naturalisation. It is impossible to buy EU citizenship.

4. An EU passport offers its holder the opportunity to travel visa-free to over 170 countries, improve the quality of life, educate children in prestigious schools and universities, as well as work or run a business in any EU country.

5. Some countries do not permit second citizenship. For example, obtaining a Spanish passport requires renouncing any other nationality.

6. Most investment programs do not require living in the country if a resident status is enough. Obtaining citizenship often requires spending at least 183 days a year in the country.