Moving to Turkey: residency types, tips, and challenges

1. Turkey spans two continents — Europe and Asia — with the dividing line running through the Bosphorus Strait. This narrow, strategically significant waterway connects the Black Sea to the Sea of Marmara and ultimately to the Aegean and Mediterranean Seas.

2. Capital is Ankara, located in the central Anatolian region. It serves as the country’s administrative and political hub.

3. Largest city is Istanbul, a cultural and economic centre straddling both Europe and Asia.

4. Population is around 85 million.

5. Official language is Turkish.

6. Currency is the Turkish Lira.

7. Predominant religion is Islam, making Turkey a majority-Muslim country. However, the state is officially secular.

8. National symbol is the crescent moon and star, which also features on the Turkish flag.

9. Turkey shares borders with Greece, Bulgaria, Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Iran, Iraq, and Syria.

10. Turkey’s citizenship by investment program has become one of the most popular worldwide, with over 35,000 foreigners obtaining citizenship by 2024. The minimum required investment is $400,000.

Turkey offers several types of residence permits: short-term, family, student, and long-term permits. Another appealing option for relocating to Turkey is obtaining citizenship through significant investment.

The short-term residence permit is generally issued for up to 2 years and can be extended. However, investors and citizens of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus are eligible for permits valid for 5 years.

A short-term residence permit is issued to foreigners who:

1. Conduct scientific research.

2. Own residential real estate worth at least $200,000 in Turkey.

3. Establish business or commercial connections.

4. Stay for tourism purposes.

5. Transition from a family residence permit.

A residence permit in Turkey does not grant the right to work. Foreigners must apply for a work permit, which is issued by the Ministry of Labor, Social Services, and Family or other authorised public institutions.

Individuals coming to Turkey solely for work are granted a work permit, which also serves as a residence permit for its duration. Once the work permit expires, holders are allowed an additional 10 days of legal stay, during which they can apply for a suitable residency.

The family residence permit is granted to spouses and dependent children. It is valid for up to 3 years, with the possibility of extension, but cannot exceed the sponsor’s residency duration.

Holders of a family residence permit can apply for a short-term permit in cases such as divorce, the sponsor’s death, or when a foreigner reaching 18 years of age has resided in Turkey for at least 3 years.

The student residence permit is issued to foreigners receiving primary or secondary education, studying medicine or dentistry, or attending associate, graduate, or postgraduate programs. It is valid for the duration of the studies.

Long-term residency is granted to those who have lived in Turkey for at least 8 years on a short-term residence permit. This permit is valid for life.

Citizenship by investment is available to wealthy foreigners who contribute at least $400,000 to the country’s economy.

The Turkey citizenship by investment program requires a minimum investment of $400,000 in the Turkish economy, offering five options to cater to diverse investor preferences.

Investment options for Turkish citizenship are:

1. Real estate investment of at least $400,000 in residential, commercial, or mixed-use properties.

2. Business investment of at least $500,000 in the share capital of a Turkish company or the establishment of a new company creating a minimum of 50 jobs.

3. Opening a bank deposit with a minimum of $500,000.

4. Purchasing government bonds worth $500,000.

5. Investing $500,000 in units of a Turkish investment fund.

The investment thresholds are denominated in US dollars to minimise the impact of fluctuations in the Turkish lira. Foreigners are allowed to withdraw their funds after holding their investments for at least 3 years.

95% of investors choose the real estate option, making it the most sought-after route to Turkish citizenship. Investors may acquire multiple properties to meet the $400,000 threshold, provided ownership for each property is properly documented. Property values in Turkey have been steadily increasing, with annual growth rates of 15—25%.

Benefits of Turkey citizenship by investment are the following:

1. C‑2 Schengen visa valid for 5 years.

2. Visa-free travel to 126 countries.

3. Eligibility for the E‑2 business visa to the US, allowing investors and their families to live and work in the US.

4. B‑1/B‑2 US Visitor Visa valid for 10 years.

5. No exams required to apply for citizenship.

6. Opportunities for profitable investments.

The Turkey investment program extends citizenship to family members, including the spouse and minor children, with no additional investment required for dependents.

Turkey allows dual citizenship, enabling investors and their family members to retain their previous passports.

Determine your budget, factoring in rent, utilities, and maintenance fees. Keep in mind that the cost of living varies across cities, with Istanbul and coastal areas like Antalya typically being more expensive. For example, the average monthly rent for a one-bedroom apartment in Istanbul city center is around $900, compared to $250–400 in smaller cities like Konya.

For those considering property purchases, prices vary significantly depending on the city and location. The average price per square meter in Istanbul ranges from $1,800 to $2,500, while in smaller cities like Bursa or Trabzon, it is between $1,000 and $1,500. Coastal towns such as Bodrum and Fethiye often have higher property prices, averaging $2,500—3,000 per square meter.

Decide the purpose of purchase. If buying real estate, decide whether the apartment will be for personal use, generating rental income, or fulfilling Turkish citizenship by investment requirements.

Consider additional fees. When purchasing property in Turkey, several additional costs must be accounted for beyond the purchase price. These include:

• a title deed transfer fee — 4% of the property value;

• stamp duty — 0.948%;

• notary fees — $100—300;

• earthquake insurance — $25—100 per year;

• a property registration fee — $250;

• an annual property tax — 0.3—0.4%.

When renting real estate, landlords typically require a refundable security deposit equivalent to 1—2 months’ rent. Additionally, if you work with a real estate agent, expect to pay a commission fee, which is usually equal to one month’s rent.

Choose the right location. For work, look for apartments near business districts or with convenient public transport connections. For example, in Istanbul, areas like Levent, Maslak, and Şişli are close to major business hubs and offer excellent metro and bus links. In Ankara, neighborhoods such as Çankaya and Kızılay are popular among professionals due to their proximity to offices and government institutions.

Families should consider neighborhoods with schools, parks, and family-friendly amenities. In Istanbul, areas such as Etiler, Bahçeşehir, and Ataşehir are known for their safe environment, quality schools, and green spaces. In Antalya, Lara and Konyaaltı are ideal for families, offering a mix of residential comfort and access to parks and recreational facilities.

For rental income, focus on locations with high tourist or expat demand, such as Istanbul, Antalya, or Bodrum, where short-term rentals can generate higher returns.

Study property value trends in your chosen area if you plan to resell the property. For instance, real estate in Istanbul appreciates by 15—25% annually, making it an excellent investment option. Cities like Antalya and Bodrum also experience steady appreciation due to their popularity among tourists and expats, with annual growth rates averaging 10—20%.

Browse trusted real estate platforms such as Sahibinden, Hürriyet Emlak, or Zingat. Alternatively, explore local expat and housing groups on social media for listings and advice.

Immigrant Invest provides its own real estate catalogue, featuring carefully selected properties that not only meet the criteria for Turkey citizenship by investment program but also offer high investment potential in prime locations. Their team ensures that each property is vetted for legal compliance, helping investors save time and avoid potential risks.

Visit the property to assess its condition, neighborhood, and proximity to essential services like supermarkets, public transport, and healthcare facilities.

Ensure the contract clearly outlines terms such as the deposit amount, payment schedule, and maintenance responsibilities. Contracts are typically written in Turkish, so having them translated or reviewed by a lawyer is strongly recommended.

If buying a property, check its legal status. Verify the title deed and ensure there are no legal issues, such as unpaid debts or construction violations.

Confirm which utilities are included in the rent and inquire about average monthly costs for those that are not.

Avoid making payments before visiting the property or signing a contract. Be cautious of listings with prices that seem unrealistically low.

Work with a licensed local real estate agent to simplify the process, especially if you don’t speak Turkish. Agents can assist with negotiating terms and guiding you through legal procedures.

Applicants for Turkey’s citizenship by investment program can rely on the support of Immigrant Invest lawyers. Our services include verifying property compliance with program requirements, ensuring the title deed is free of any issues, and preparing all necessary documentation for the citizenship application. We also provide assistance with contract reviews and navigating legal procedures.

Investment property in Turkey

Turkey, Izmir

$1,000,000+

Two-floor villa with a swimming pool near the sea

140 m²

3

3

Turkey, Istanbul

$280,000 — $2,020,000

Furnished apartments in a prestigious area of Istanbul

55 m² — 200 m²

1—3

1—3

Turkey, Istanbul

$124,000 — $510,000

Apartments and commercial premises in a premium residential complex

40 m² — 162 m²

2—3

1—2

Indian and Pakistani citizens must apply for a tourist visa before traveling to Turkey. For long-term stays, such as studying or working, a residency permit is required.

Turkey has Double Taxation Avoidance Agreements (DTAAs) with both India and Pakistan, ensuring that individuals and businesses are not taxed twice on the same income in these countries.

Income taxation rules are the following:

1. Employment income is taxed in the country where the income is earned if the individual spends more than 183 days a year there.

2. Dividends and interest are taxable in the country where the income arises, but with reduced withholding tax rates under the DTAAs.

3. Tax credits can be claimed in the taxpayer’s home country for taxes paid abroad.

4. Business profits are taxed in the country where the business has a permanent establishment.

5. Capital gains are taxed in the country where the asset is located.

Private pensions are taxed in the recipient’s country of residence. Government pensions are taxed in the country paying the pension unless the recipient resides in and holds citizenship of the other country.

UK citizens can stay in Turkey visa-free for up to 90 days within a 180-day period for tourism. Longer stays require a residence permit. After Brexit, UK citizens are no longer covered by EU-Turkey agreements and must follow the same residence permit procedures as other non-EU citizens.

Those moving to Turkey benefit from the Turkey-UK Double Taxation Agreement, which ensures fair taxation and prevents undue financial burdens on individuals and businesses.

The treaty specifies which country has the primary right to tax different types of income:

1. Employment income is taxed in the country where the individual works.

2. Dividends and interest may be taxed in both countries, but the source country’s tax is capped.

3. Pensions are usually taxed in the country of residence, although exceptions may apply to certain public pensions.

4. Capital gains are taxed in the country where the asset is located.

A UK-based company with operations in Turkey will only pay Turkish taxes on profits generated by its Turkish branch.

US citizens can also enter Turkey visa-free for up to 90 days within a 180-day period for tourism or business purposes. For long-term stays, such as work or residency, they must apply for a residence permit.

When moving to Turkey from the US, expats are still required to file US taxes. Turkey and the US have a tax treaty to avoid double taxation, allowing US citizens to claim foreign tax credits for taxes paid in Turkey on income also reported to the Internal Revenue Service in the US. For example, if a US citizen pays income tax in Turkey on their salary, they can deduct this amount from their US tax liability.

In Turkey, a single person requires $600—1,300 per month, including rent, depending on the city and apartment location. The cost of living is 50—70% lower compared to the US and UK, particularly in housing and transportation.

However, compared to India and Pakistan, living in Turkey is relatively more expensive. Housing costs are 2—3 times higher than in these South Asian countries. Essentials like food and the internet are 50—100% more expensive. That said, Turkey offers better housing quality, infrastructure, and an overall higher standard of living.

To move to Turkey with family, the primary applicant must first obtain a residency or work permit. Once this is secured, they can sponsor their family members.

Relatives must apply for family residence permits. Eligible family members include the sponsor’s spouse, children of the sponsor of any age, and minor and dependent children of the spouse.

Required documents include:

• valid passports for all family members;

• application form for each dependent;

• proof of relationship, such as marriage certificate for the spouse and birth certificates for children;

• sponsor’s proof of sufficient income to support the family;

• health insurance covering all applicants;

• proof of accommodation, such as a rental agreement or property ownership;

• documents showing the place of residence and actual place of stay;

• clean criminal records;

• sponsor’s residency or work permit copy.

Applications can be submitted either at the Turkish consulate in the applicant’s home country or at the immigration office in Turkey.

Turkey allows individuals to bring up to two pets, including dogs, cats, or birds. For additional pets or exotic animals, special permission must be obtained from the Turkish Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry. To inquire about the application process, it is recommended to contact the nearest Turkish embassy or consulate.

Rabies vaccination is mandatory and must be administered at least 30 days, but no more than 12 months, before travel.

Rabies titer test-blood is also required, with blood samples taken at least 21 days after the most recent rabies vaccination.

ISO-compliant 15-digit microchip must be implanted. This is essential for identification and must be done before the rabies vaccination.

Veterinary certificate for Turkey must be completed within 48 hours prior to departure and stamped by the government authority in the exporting country responsible for the import and export of animals.

Understand the job market. As of 2025, Turkey’s unemployment rate hovers around 10%, indicating high competition. However, certain sectors maintain a steady demand for foreign professionals, such as English teaching, tourism, hospitality, IT, and international trade. Highly skilled professionals may also find opportunities in fields like engineering, healthcare, and consulting.

Start learning Turkish, as it provides a significant advantage for most jobs. For roles in international companies, English teaching, or tourism, fluency in English or another foreign language is often sufficient.

Use reliable websites to search for jobs:

• Kariyer.net — one of the largest job portals in Turkey;

• LinkedIn — popular for professional and international opportunities;

• Jooble Turkey — aggregates job postings across various platforms;

• Expat.com — lists job opportunities specifically for expatriates;

• Secretcv.com — features a wide range of job listings.

Consider teaching English, as it is one of the most common jobs for foreigners in Turkey. Requirements usually include a bachelor’s degree and a TEFL or TESOL certification. Language schools and international schools are the primary employers.

Explore the tourism sector, which employs many foreigners. Roles range from tour guides and hotel staff to management positions in international hotel chains.

Network actively to build connections. Attend industry events, seminars, or meetups in cities like Istanbul or Ankara. Join expat communities and professional groups on platforms like Facebook or InterNations.

Secure a job offer in Turkey. A work permit is tied to employment, so ensure the employer is willing to sponsor your work permit application.

Gather required documents. Employers provide a signed application, documents proving the company is legally registered in Turkey, and evidence that no suitable Turkish candidate is available for the role.

Employees provide:

• valid passport with at least 6 months of remaining validity;

• passport-sized photo;

• signed employment contract or job offer letter;

• diplomas, certificates, or other qualifications relevant to the job.

Submit the application. If you are in Turkey with a valid residence permit, your employer will submit the documents online through the Ministry of Labor and Social Security (MLSS) portal.

If you are outside Turkey, apply at the nearest Turkish consulate or embassy in your home country. The employer must complete the online application process with the MLSS within 10 days after the consular submission.

Wait for approval for 10—30 days.

Obtain the work visa and travel to Turkey. Once the application is approved, travel to Turkey with your work visa and register your address at the local Population and Citizenship Directorate within 30 days.

Collect your work permit card. It will be sent to your employer’s address.

Istanbul, Turkey’s largest city and economic hub, offers numerous job opportunities, a vibrant cultural scene, and excellent international connectivity. With over 1 million foreign residents, Istanbul is ideal for professionals, entrepreneurs, and those seeking an active, cosmopolitan lifestyle.

The city features expat-friendly hotspots like Istiklal Street, known for its eclectic mix of restaurants, cafes, and shops, and Cihangir, a trendy neighborhood popular among foreign creatives. Regular events, such as the Istanbul Jazz Festival and various art exhibitions, solidify its reputation as a cultural hub for expats.

However, the city’s fast-paced lifestyle makes it Turkey’s busiest, with constant traffic congestion and a higher cost of living compared to other regions. A single person requires approximately $700 per month for basic expenses, with additional costs for rent starting at $600 for one-bedroom apartments outside the city center.

Ankara, the capital city of Turkey, is known for its organized infrastructure, quality education, and government job opportunities, making it an ideal destination for families, government employees, and students. It is more affordable than Istanbul while still providing essential city amenities. A monthly budget of at least $1,000 is needed, including rent for a one-bedroom apartment.

For expats, Ankara offers rich cultural experiences, including performances by the Presidential Symphony Orchestra and the State Opera and Ballet. The city also features vibrant cafes in Kızılay and boutique shopping along Tunalı Hilmi Street.

However, unlike Turkey’s coastal cities, Ankara is landlocked and lacks access to the sea. The city has a semi-arid continental climate, with hot, dry summers and cold winters.

Antalya, a Mediterranean coastal city, is a favorite among expats due to its affordability and vibrant expat community. The monthly rent for a three-bedroom apartment in the city center averages $900, approximately $700 less than in Istanbul.

Antalya’s Old Town features a lively atmosphere with historic buildings, boutique hotels, and charming cafes. Expats and tourists often gather at restaurants like 7 Mehmet, renowned for its local cuisine and stunning views. The city also hosts the annual Antalya Film Festival, a significant cultural event.

Antalya is especially popular with retirees, digital nomads, and nature enthusiasts, offering a relaxed lifestyle and breathtaking beaches. However, its scenic beauty and appeal as a travel destination make it crowded with tourists during the summer months.

Izmir, an Aegean coastal city, boasts a laid-back atmosphere, moderate cost of living, and high quality of life. It offers cultural events, excellent schools, and proximity to beaches and historical sites, making it ideal for families, retirees, and those seeking a balance between urban and coastal living. A single person requires around $1,000 per month, including rent.

The Kordon Promenade is a favorite gathering spot for locals, known for its seaside cafes and lively atmosphere. Expats often enjoy shopping at the Kemeralti Bazaar and attending events like the European Jazz Festival and the Izmir International Fair, which attracts exhibitors from various industries, including technology, tourism, food, and textiles.

While Izmir provides a less hectic pace of life compared to Istanbul, it maintains a cosmopolitan vibe and has a growing expat community. However, some may find its public transport system less extensive than those in larger cities like Istanbul and Ankara.

Bursa, a historic city and former capital of the Ottoman Empire, is celebrated for its rich history, abundant green spaces, and proximity to natural attractions like Mount Uludağ. The city offers a quieter lifestyle and a low cost of living, with a single person needing approximately $800 per month, including rent.

Bursa is renowned for its İskender Kebap, which locals savor at iconic restaurants like Kebapçı İskender. The city also offers cultural gems such as the Karagöz Shadow Play Museum, dedicated to the traditional Turkish puppetry art of Karagöz and Hacivat. Another highlight is the annual Silk Road Festival, where visitors can explore local crafts, enjoy diverse cuisines, and participate in workshops.

Bursa is ideal for families and professionals seeking a balance between urban and suburban living, thanks to its well-planned infrastructure, quality healthcare, and educational institutions. However, the city lacks the international vibrancy of Istanbul, and its expat community is relatively small.

Fethiye, a picturesque coastal town on the Turquoise Coast, is renowned for its natural beauty, including the stunning Butterfly Valley. The town is a popular choice for retirees and digital nomads seeking a peaceful lifestyle. Monthly living expenses are relatively low, with a single person needing around $600, and rent for a one-bedroom apartment outside the center averaging $350.

The Fethiye Market is a vibrant hub for fresh produce and artisanal goods, while the Fish Market offers a unique dining experience where visitors can choose their seafood and have it cooked on-site. Popular events include the Ölüdeniz Air Games Festival, which attracts paragliders and spectators from around the world to showcase stunts and skills against the Mediterranean coast’s breathtaking backdrop.

Despite its charm, Fethiye is a small town primarily centered around tourism, which limits job opportunities for expats. Additionally, its seasonal nature means the town can become notably quieter during the winter months.

Trabzon, situated on the Black Sea coast, offers a cooler climate, lush greenery, and a relaxed pace of life. Its affordable living costs and scenic beauty make it an appealing destination for nature lovers seeking tranquility and a mild climate. A single person can live comfortably on around $600 per month, including rent.

The city is renowned for the Sümela Monastery, perched high in the mountains, and the Trabzon Bazaar, a great place to find local handicrafts and specialties like hazelnuts. Coastal cafes, such as those in Ganita Park, are popular spots for relaxation and socializing.

However, Trabzon is relatively small and less developed than other major cities, offering fewer job opportunities for foreigners and limited English-speaking services.

Bodrum, located on the Aegean coast, is a luxurious destination renowned for its upscale lifestyle, stunning beaches, and vibrant nightlife. It attracts high-net-worth individuals, digital nomads, and retirees seeking a blend of relaxation and modern living. The cost of living is higher than in Istanbul, with monthly expenses averaging $1,200, including rent.

Expats and tourists frequent Bodrum Marina, which features stylish restaurants, cafes, and shops. Cultural highlights such as the Bodrum Ballet Festival and performances at the Bodrum Castle amphitheater enhance the town’s distinctive charm.

While Bodrum boasts a thriving expat community and excellent amenities, its popularity among tourists and affluent residents drives up the cost of housing and services compared to other coastal towns. Additionally, its seasonal economy can limit job opportunities outside the tourism and hospitality sectors.

1. Growing expat community vs. Language barrier. With nearly 5 million foreigners living in Turkey, particularly in cities like Istanbul, Antalya, and Izmir, newcomers benefit from foreign-speaking groups and expat forums. These resources make it easier to integrate, find support networks, and access services tailored to their needs, such as international schools, English-speaking doctors and clinics, and cultural associations.

Institutions like the British International School Istanbul host a variety of community events, including cultural evenings and social meetups, fostering connections among expats. Similarly, the Antalya International Club organises cultural events and book clubs for its members.

However, the language barrier remains a significant challenge. Turkish is essential for navigating daily life, particularly in smaller towns. Limited English proficiency among locals can complicate tasks such as dealing with bureaucracy and finding services. Completing paperwork for residence permits, opening bank accounts, or setting up utilities often requires the help of a Turkish-speaking friend, translator, or agent.

2. Affordable cost of living vs. Economic instability. Turkey offers a relatively affordable cost of living, with low prices for housing, transportation, and dining compared to Western countries. Many expats can enjoy a comfortable lifestyle on a moderate budget. For instance, in Antalya, a couple can rent a two-bedroom apartment for $500—600 per month, dine out with a three-course meal for two at $30—40, and use public transport with a monthly pass costing around $12.

However, economic instability, including high inflation and currency fluctuations, poses challenges. These factors can erode purchasing power and create financial uncertainty, particularly for those earning in Turkish Lira. For example, Turkey experienced an annual inflation rate exceeding 75% in May 2024, which gradually declined to 47% by November.

3. Mild climate vs. Air pollution. Turkey’s mild climate, particularly in coastal regions like Antalya and Bodrum, provides sunny, warm weather for most of the year, making it an appealing destination for outdoor activities and relaxation.

However, air pollution in urban areas, caused by traffic congestion and industrial activity, can negatively impact the quality of life, especially for individuals with respiratory sensitivities.

4. Strategic location vs. Traffic and urban crowding. Turkey’s strategic location at the crossroads of Europe and Asia makes it an ideal hub for travel and international business. Istanbul’s airport, one of the busiest in the world, offers convenient access to both neighboring and distant regions. However, its immense size and heavy passenger traffic can make navigation within the airport time-consuming.

Moreover, major cities like Istanbul face severe traffic congestion and urban crowding, which can be particularly stressful for residents, especially during peak hours.

5. Warm hospitality vs. Bureaucracy. Turkish people are renowned for their friendliness, often going out of their way to make newcomers feel welcome and comfortable.

However, dealing with Turkey’s bureaucracy can be challenging. Lengthy processes, inconsistent information, and extensive paperwork are common hurdles for tasks such as obtaining residence permits and setting up utilities.

6. Rich culture and history vs. Cultural adjustment. Turkey’s rich cultural heritage and historical landmarks, from ancient ruins to Ottoman palaces, offer endless opportunities for exploration and appreciation. The country’s diverse cuisine, featuring kebabs, mezes, baklava, and Turkish tea, provides an additional layer of cultural immersion.

However, adapting to local dining customs and specific regional flavors may take time. Additionally, adjusting to cultural norms—such as social customs, business etiquette, and religious practices—can be challenging for some newcomers. For instance, during Ramadan, it’s respectful to avoid eating or drinking in public during daylight hours to show consideration for those fasting.

In business settings, meetings often begin with casual conversation over tea or coffee. Jumping straight into discussions can be perceived as impolite, so building rapport is essential. Sharing food is also a common practice, and offering a portion of your meal to others is seen as a gesture of hospitality. Refusing such an offer without explanation might be considered rude.

1. Turkey offers 9 ways to obtain residency, including options for students, workers, families, scientific researchers, property owners, entrepreneurs, investors, and tourists.

2. After 8 years of living in Turkey, foreigners are eligible for a long-term residence permit, valid for life.

3. Wealthy foreigners can obtain Turkish citizenship by investing at least $400,000 in the country’s economy.

4. Cost of living in Turkey is 50—70% lower than in the US and the UK but 2—3 times higher than in India and Pakistan. A single person requires $600—1,300 per month, including rent.

5. Advantages of relocating to Turkey include a growing expat community, mild climate, affordable cost of living, strategic location, warm hospitality, and rich cultural heritage.

6. Disadvantages of living in Turkey are the language barrier, economic instability, air pollution, urban crowding, bureaucracy, and cultural adjustment.

7. Best cities to settle in Turkey are Istanbul, Antalya, Ankara, Fethiye, Bodrum, Izmir, Bursa, and Trabzon.